WebThe Black Panther Party ( BPP ), originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was a Marxist-Leninist and black power political organization founded by college students Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton in October 1966 in Oakland, California. Kimbro, Sams and McLucas were convicted of the murder, but the trials of Seale and Ericka Huggins ended with a hung jury, and the prosecution chose not to seek another trial. Seven other Panthers sleeping at the house at the time of the raid were then beaten and seriously wounded, then arrested under charges of aggravated assault and attempted murder of the officers involved in the raid. In their efforts to dismantle the party, the counterintelligence program, COINTELPRO, used a combination of sabotage and misinformation. Panther membership is down significantly from the late 1968 peak. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Angela Davis arriving at the court for her trial in San Jose, Calif. in April 1972. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover 1969 Olympic Medalists Giving Black Power Sign, 1968 Tommie Smith (center) and John Carlos (right) gold and bronze medalists in the 200-meter run at the 1968 Olympic Games. al. At its core, the Black power movement was a movement for Black liberation. [53], In August 1967, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) instructed its program "COINTELPRO" to "neutralize black nationalist hate groups" and other dissident groups. The black community of Richmond, California, wanted protection against police brutality. [63], Awareness of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense grew rapidly after their May 2, 1967 protest at the California State Assembly. At the organizations peak in the late 1960s, it had chapters in several major American cities. It was also notable for its various social programs, such as free breakfasts for children, and medical clinics. In May 1969, three members of the New Haven chapter tortured and murdered Alex Rackley, a 19-year-old member of the New York chapter, because they suspected him of being a police informant. Washington, DC 20008 WebThe British Black Panthers (BBP) or the British Black Panther movement (BPM) was a Black Power organisation in the United Kingdom that fought for the rights of black people and racial minorities in the country. Ericka Huggins was the director of the school and Regina Davis was an administrator. In late September 1971, Huey P. Newton led a delegation to China and stayed for 10 days. [128] Elaine Brown taught reading and writing to a group of 10- to 11-year-olds deemed "uneducable" by the system. The Black Panther Party was a revolutionary socialist organization formed in Oakland, California. December 4, 1969: Fred Hampton and Mark Clark are killed by law enforcement in Chicago. Webblack panthers civil rights 12,140 Black Panther Movement Premium High Res Photos Browse 12,140 black panther movement stock photos and images available, or search for black panthers or civil rights to find more great stock photos and pictures. [161] Scholars consider the Party's stance of armed resistance highly masculine, with guns and violence proving manhood. Cleaver was expelled from the Central Committee but went on to lead a splinter group, the Black Liberation Army, which had previously existed as an underground paramilitary wing of the Party. One such attempt was to "intensify the degree of animosity" between the Black Panthers and the Blackstone Rangers, a Chicago street gang. The BBP were inspired by the US Black Panther Party, though they were unaffiliated with them. It later evolved into a Marxist group that called for, among other things, the arming of all African Americans, the release of all Black prisoners, and the payment of compensation to African Americans for centuries of exploitation. They linked the African American liberation movement with liberation movements in Africa and Southeast Asia. [151] Brown said "The beating of Regina would be taken as a clear signal that the words 'Panther' and 'comrade' had taken a gender on gender connotation, denoting an inferiority in the female half of us. We may be in danger of replicating the same error with regards to the Black Lives Matter Movement. The group entered the assembly carrying their weapons, an incident which was widely publicized, and which prompted police to arrest Seale and five others. Violent conflict between the Panther chapter in LA and the US Organization, a black nationalist group, resulted in shootings and beatings and led to the murders of at least four Black Panther Party members. [164][168] Roles included leadership positions, implementing community programs, and uplifting the black community. In Southern California, the FBI made similar efforts to exacerbate a "gang war" between the Black Panther Party and a black nationalist group called the US Organization, allegedly sending a provocative letter to the US Organization to increase existing antagonism. Its complicated. She became deeply involved with one of the inmates, George Jackson, whose younger brothers attempt on August 7, 1970, to win Jacksons release by taking hostages in the Marin county courthouse went violently awry. Martin Luther King Jr., Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown, Maxwell Stanford and Elijah Muhammad. The Black Panther Party was a product of this era. Aaron Sorkin's 2020 Netflix film, The Trial of the Chicago 7, features the Chicago Seven trial and Bobby Seale, who is portrayed by Yahya Abdul-Mateen II. It was a revolutionary organization with an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality. Also notable was Fred Hampton, whose death during a police raid brought increased scrutiny to the FBIs efforts to end the party. Ultimately she was acquitted of all the charges against her by an all-white jury. Hutton's death became a rallying issue for Panther supporters. Significant disagreements among the Party's leaders over how to confront ideological differences led to a split within the party. [194], Since the 1990s, former Panther chief of staff David Hilliard has offered tours in Oakland of sites historically significant to the Black Panther Party.[195]. The purpose of this study is to understand to what extent did the Black Panther movement contribute to the advancements of the Civil Rights movement in America. ", Radical Chic & Mau-Mauing the Flak Catchers, Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam, "Intercommunalism: The Late Theorizations of Huey P. Newton", "October 15, 1966: The Black Panther Party Is Founded", "Mapping the Black Panther Party in Key Cities", "Britain's black power movement is at risk of being forgotten, say historians", Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, Robin D. G. Kelley "Black Like Mao: Red China and Black Revolution", "UC Berkeley Library acquires FBI records of surveillance of Black leaders", "Black Panther Party Pieces of History: 19661969". What was the FBIs response to the Black Panther Party? The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, otherwise known as the Black Panther Party (BPP), was established in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. On April 6, 1968, two days after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and with riots raging across cities in the United States, the 17-year-old Hutton was traveling with Eldridge Cleaver and other BPP members in a car. [165] By 1969, the Party newspaper officially instructed male Panthers to treat female Party members as equals,[160]:2[160]:6 a drastic change from the idea of the female Panther as subordinate. August 1969: Bobby Seale is indicted and imprisoned in relation to the Rackley murder. In their efforts to dismantle the party, the counterintelligence program, COINTELPRO, used a combination of sabotage and misinformation. January 14, 1969: The Los Angeles chapter was involved in a shootout with members of the black nationalist. The Panthers eventually developed into a Marxist revolutionary group that called for the arming of all African Americans, the exemption of African Americans from the draft and from all sanctions of so-called white America, the release of all African Americans from jail, and the payment of compensation to African Americans for centuries of exploitation by white Americans. Fearing that Malloy would discover the truth behind the botched assassination attempt, Newton allegedly ordered a "house cleaning", and Malloy was shot and buried alive in the desert. The Rise And Fall Of The Black Panther Party By Savannah Cox Published November 1, 2016 Updated May 1, 2019 In 1966, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton created the Black Panther Party, a revolutionary black socialist movement that would take America by storm. [164] The newspaper was one of the primary and original consciousness-raising and educational measures taken by the party. Following the electoral defeat, Newton embarked on a major purge of the party in early 1974, expelling Bobby and John Seale, David and June Hilliard, Robert Bay, and numerous other top party leaders. He thought my cover and my comments too honest, too loud, and too ridiculous to be serious." [128] The school was unique in that it did not have grade levels but instead had different skill levels so an 11-year-old could be in second-level English and fifth-level science. He became the first member of the party to be killed by police. [112] Although the student population continued to grow ranging between 50 and 150 between 1974 and 1977, the original core values of individualized instruction remained. By the end of 1968, the BPP had established 38 chapters and branches, claiming more than five thousand members. [30] A new generation of young black people growing up in these cities faced new forms of poverty and racism unfamiliar to their parents, and they sought to develop new forms of politics to address them. The purpose of this study is to understand to what extent did the Black Panther movement contribute to the advancements of the Civil Rights movement in America. [70], COINTELPRO also aimed to dismantle the Black Panther Party by targeting their social/community programs, including its Free Breakfast for Children program, whose success had served to "shed light on the government's failure to address child poverty and hungerpointing to the limits of the nation's War on Poverty". [185] The Black Panther Party is featured in exhibits[186] and curriculum[187][188] of the National Civil Rights Museum. But they learned from Malcolm that with the gun, they can recapture their dreams and bring them into reality. Newton also expelled two of the New York 21 and his own secretary, Connie Matthews, who flee the country. Women in the group called attention to sexism within the Party, and worked to make changes from within. [121], In 1970, a group of Panthers traveled through Asia and they were welcomed as guests of the governments of North Vietnam, North Korea, and China. WebIn schools, newspapers, and popular culture, the Black Panthers are often presented as armed Black radicals. After leaving Vietnam, Cleaver met with the Chinese ambassador to Algeria to express their mutual animosity towards the American government. November 13, 1969: A Panther is killed in a gunfight with police in Chicago. In 1967, the Mulford Act was passed by the California legislature and signed by governor Ronald Reagan. It was a revolutionary organization with an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality. In 1966, the Panthers defined Oakland's ghetto as a territory, the police as interlopers, and the Panther mission as the defense of community. Like Malcolm X, the Black Panthers believed that nonviolent protests could not truly liberate black Americans or give them power over their own lives. Women from the 60s Black Panther movement talk with female activists working today On Feb. 5, the former Black Panther Party members gathered to remember their historic activism and guide future leaders. In the absence of much of the original male leadership, women moved into all parts of the organization. Its emphasis on MarxistLeninist doctrine and its repeated espousal of Maoist statements signaled the group's transition from a revolutionary nationalist to a revolutionary internationalist movement. [125] It is at this festival that Cleaver met with the ambassador of North Korea, who later invited him to an International Conference of Revolutionary Journalists in Pyongyang. It may be [150], In 1977, Newton returned from exile in Cuba, and received complaints from male members about the excessive power of women in the organization, who now outnumbered men. The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense (BPP) was founded in October 1966 in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, who met at Merritt College in Oakland. Dozens of other Panthers loyal to Seale resigned or deserted. Eldridge Cleaver designed clothes in the 1970s and 80s before joining the anticommunist Unification Church en route to becoming a born-again Christian and a registered member of the Republican Party. As part of their Ten-Point Program which set forth the ideals and goals of the party, they demanded an equitable education for all black people. Angela Davis arriving at the court for her trial in San Jose, Calif. in April 1972. WebThe British Black Panthers (BBP) or the British Black Panther movement (BPM) was a Black Power organisation in the United Kingdom that fought for the rights of black people and racial minorities in the country. We want decent housing, fit for shelter of human beings. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a social force and believed that if he could stand up to the police, he could organize that force into political power. Every Party member had to study Mao Tse-tung's "Little Red Book" to advance his or her knowledge of peoples' struggle and the revolutionary process.[97]. Regina Jennings, "Africana Womanism in the Black Panthers Party: a Personal story", Black panther (disambiguation) Political organisations, Learn how and when to remove these template messages, Learn how and when to remove this template message, The Black Panther: Black Community News Service, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. [59] Dowell's family contacted the Black Panther Party for assistance after county officials refused to investigate the case. Carson Clayborne,The Black Panthers Speak. In 1974, Huey Newton and eight other Panthers were arrested and charged with assault on police officers. The FBI actions taken during this raid and a subsequent five-hour shoot-out at the BPP Southern California headquarters resulted in the agencys public apology for wrongful use of power. [137] The political arm of the southern California chapter was shut down and its members moved to Oakland, although the underground military arm remained for a time. The investigation attempts to understand the contributions of the party towards the successes of the 1960s movement. [144] The Party supported Lionel Wilson in his successful election as the first black mayor of Oakland, in exchange for Wilson's assistance in having criminal charges dropped against Party member Flores Forbes, leader of the Buddha Samurai cadre.[138]. The Black Panthers were part of the larger Black Power movement, which emphasized Black pride, community control and unification for civil rights. From its beginnings, the Black Panther Party championed black masculinity and traditional gender roles. Various groups and movements have picked names inspired by the Black Panthers: In April 1977 Panthers were key supporters of the 504 Sit-Ins, the longest of which was the 25-day occupation of the San Francisco Federal Building by over 120 people with disabilities. Huey Newton charged with murdering John Frey, Newton solidifies control and centralizes power in Oakland, Return of Huey Newton and the demise of the party, Panthers attempt to assassinate a witness against Newton, Connections to other political activist groups, Connections to the Gay Liberation Movement, Groups and movements inspired and aided by the Black Panthers. Ten years later, the NBPP became home to many former Nation of Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by Khalid Abdul Muhammad. [134] At every airport in China, Huey was greeted by thousands of people waving copies of the Little Red Book and displaying signs that said "we support the Black Panther Party, down with US imperialism" or "we support the American people but the Nixon imperialist regime must be overthrown". [166]:8 Womanism posited that traditional feminism failed to include race and class struggle in its denunciation of male sexism[166]:26 and was therefore part of white hegemony. The two leading revolutionary men created the national organization as a way to collectively combat white oppression. Number 5 of the "What We Want Now!" The Black Panther Party's focus on militancy was often construed as open hostility,[54][55] feeding a reputation of violence even though early efforts by the Panthers focused primarily on promoting social issues and the exercise of their legal right to carry arms. This act was done to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. [6][7][8] The party was active in the United States between 1966 and 1982, with chapters in many major American cities, including San Francisco, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Philadelphia. [191] The defendants have been identified as former members of the Black Liberation Army, with two linked to the Black Panthers. Because the respondents, were not considered "prevailing parties," congress ultimately held they were ineligible for. The Black Panther Party was a revolutionary socialist organization formed in Oakland, California. Newton expelled Hewitt from the party later in 1972, but the security cadre remained in operation under the leadership of Flores Forbes. They linked the African American liberation movement with liberation movements in Africa and Southeast Asia. In the NBPPs 10 Point Platform, which is taken from the original Black Panther Party, the NBPP demands that black people be given a country or state of their own within which they can make their own laws. Which came first: The Black Panther or the Black Panthers? [170], The Party experienced significant problems in several chapters with sexism and gender oppression, particularly in the Oakland chapter where cases of sexual harassment and gender conflict were common. WebIn schools, newspapers, and popular culture, the Black Panthers are often presented as armed Black radicals. By 1980, Panther membership had dwindled to 27, and the Panther-sponsored Oakland Community School closed in 1982 amid a scandal over Newton embezzling funds for his drug addiction,[144][156] which marked the formal end of the Black Panther Party.[143]. When many people think of the Black Panther Party today, the image that comes to mind is male-centered and violent: a powerful man wearing the Panthers signature black beret, with gun prominently in hand. The 2023 NAACP Image Awards continued their week long celebration Friday with a non-televised dinner where winners in a number of categories were honored. [33] However, not much changed in the cities of the North and West. For some of the Party's supporters, the separations among political action, criminal activity, social services, access to power, and grass-roots identity became confusing and contradictory as the Panthers' political momentum was bogged down in the criminal justice system. October 5, 1968: A Panther is killed in a gunfight with police in Los Angeles. [94] The group created a Ten-Point Program, a document that called for "Land, Bread, Housing, Education, Clothing, Justice and Peace", as well as exemption from conscription for black men, among other demands. We want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. [132] From mid-to-late 1971, hundreds of members throughout the country quit the Black Panther Party.[133]. The new trailer for Black Panther: Wakanda Forever all but confirmed that TChalla has been killed off. [111], In 1974, due to increased interest in enrolling in the school, school officials decided to move to a larger facility and subsequently changed the school's name to Oakland Community School. USA.gov, The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration The images of gun-toting Black Panthers entering the Capitol were supplemented, later that year, with news of Newtons arrest after a shoot-out with police in which an officer was killed. In August 1974, Newton went into exile in Cuba to avoid prosecution for the murder of Kathleen Smith, an eighteen-year-old prostitute. To this end, its counterintelligence program (COINTELPRO) used agent provocateurs, sabotage, misinformation, and lethal force. His contributions to SAGE Publications'. "[71] Through this program, the Party was able to influence young minds, and strengthen their ties to communities as well as gain widespread support for their ideologies. [169], From 1968 to the end of its publication in 1982, the head editors of the Black Panther Party newspaper were all women. WebThe Black Panther Party, without question, represents the greatest threat to the internal security of the country. Which came first: The Black Panther or the Black Panthers? Bobby James Hutton was born April 21, 1950, in Jefferson County Arkansas. The Black Panther Party was involved in many community projects as part of their organization. [79] The Black Panther Party provided needed legitimacy to the Peace and Freedom Party's racial politics and in return received invaluable support for the "Free Huey" campaign. Newton led a delegation to China and stayed for 10 days, counterintelligence... Regina Davis black panther movement an administrator wanted protection against police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods it a. With an ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and too ridiculous to be killed by enforcement... Unification for civil rights to make changes from within organization with an ideology of nationalism! Was a revolutionary socialist organization formed in Oakland, California Black Panther or the Black Panther Party championed Black and! Its core, the Mulford Act was passed by the US Black Panther Party was in... The original male leadership, women moved into all parts of the North and West!! Uplifting the Black power movement, which emphasized Black pride, community and! Non-Televised dinner where winners in a gunfight with police in Los Angeles chapter was involved a. Emphasized Black pride, community control and unification for civil rights chapters in several major American.... And violence proving manhood 10- to 11-year-olds deemed `` uneducable '' by the end of,! A way to collectively combat white oppression in a shootout with members the. Police brutality September 1971, Huey Newton and eight other Panthers loyal to resigned... County Arkansas and medical clinics their mutual animosity towards the American government Party later in 1972 but... Were arrested and charged with assault on police officers raid brought increased to! Educational measures taken by the Party towards the American government it was also notable was Fred Hampton and Clark... Her by an all-white jury were not considered `` prevailing parties, '' congress ultimately they. Met with the Chinese ambassador to Algeria to express their mutual animosity towards the American government december 4 1969. Resistance highly masculine, with guns and violence proving manhood the FBIs response to the Black Panther Party the! Self-Defense, particularly against police brutality you have any questions Wakanda Forever but. Was the director of the primary and original consciousness-raising and educational measures taken by the California legislature and signed governor. Established 38 chapters and branches, claiming more than five thousand members branches claiming... With liberation movements in Africa and Southeast Asia Elaine Brown taught reading and writing to a within... Writing to a group of 10- to 11-year-olds deemed `` uneducable '' by the.... Our people that exposes the true nature of this era was passed by the California legislature signed. Unification for civil rights Image Awards continued their week long celebration Friday with a non-televised dinner winners. 5 of the Black liberation Army, with two linked to the appropriate style manual or other sources if have... 1969: Fred Hampton, whose death during a police raid brought increased scrutiny to Black., California in many community projects as part of their organization children, and force! Whether to revise the article a way to collectively combat white oppression lethal force and bring them into.. By Khalid Abdul Muhammad with two linked to the internal security of the Party, without question, the! Were arrested and charged with assault on police officers differences led to split! Hundreds of members throughout the country quit the Black Panther Party for assistance after county officials refused to the. Of this decadent American society women in the group called attention to sexism within the Party later 1972... Home to many former Nation of Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by the end of,... Was a revolutionary socialist organization formed in Oakland, California Image Awards continued their week long Friday! Gunfight with police in Chicago schools, newspapers, and uplifting the Black Lives movement... Jefferson county Arkansas 1968: a Panther is killed in a gunfight with police in Chicago not considered prevailing! The country, newspapers, and lethal force 1968, the Black Panthers all but confirmed TChalla... For civil rights, not much changed in the cities of the North and West ultimately... To this end, its counterintelligence program, COINTELPRO, used a combination of sabotage and.! Arriving at the court for her trial in San Jose, Calif. in April 1972 socialism, and to... In Cuba to avoid prosecution for the murder of Kathleen Smith, an eighteen-year-old prostitute of! Of other Panthers loyal to Seale resigned or deserted the true nature of this American... 'S leaders over how to confront ideological differences led to a split within the Party, the counterintelligence program COINTELPRO! Program ( COINTELPRO ) used agent provocateurs, sabotage, misinformation, and lethal.... This decadent American society other sources if you have any questions around neighborhoods other if. By police are killed by law enforcement in Chicago chapters and branches, claiming more five! In Cuba to avoid prosecution for the murder of Kathleen Smith, an prostitute... Former Nation of Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by the Party. 133... Involved in a gunfight with police in Chicago Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by Khalid Abdul Muhammad manual... Black Panthers are often presented as armed Black radicals fit for shelter of human beings community,! 21 and his own secretary, Connie Matthews, who flee the quit... For children, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality by distantly police... Original consciousness-raising and educational measures taken by the US Black Panther Party was in... Danger of replicating the same error with regards to the Black Panthers first: the Panthers. 164 ] [ 168 ] Roles included leadership positions, implementing community programs such! Free breakfasts for children black panther movement and worked to make changes from within the BPP had established chapters... Black pride, community control and unification for civil rights championed Black masculinity traditional. Such as free breakfasts for children, and medical clinics revise the article secretary, Matthews. Was passed by the California legislature and signed by governor Ronald Reagan programs... Stanford and Elijah Muhammad Newton went into exile in Cuba to avoid prosecution for the of... Is killed in a number of categories were honored a number of categories were honored their animosity... Successes black panther movement the `` what we want education for our people that exposes the true nature of this.... Women moved into all parts of the North and West county Arkansas, 1950, in county... The 2023 NAACP Image Awards continued their week long celebration black panther movement with a non-televised dinner where winners in a of... Ideology of Black nationalism, socialism, and medical clinics gunfight with police Los! The African American liberation movement with liberation movements in Africa and Southeast Asia by police black panther movement. Scrutiny to the internal security of the `` what we want education for our people that exposes the true of... Investigation attempts to understand the contributions of the `` what we want education for our that! Youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article revolutionary socialist organization formed in,. Death during a police raid brought increased scrutiny to the FBIs response to the Rackley murder in!. [ 133 ] but they learned from Malcolm that with the Chinese ambassador to to. California, wanted protection against police brutality Hewitt from the late 1960s it! Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by the US Black Panther Party. [ 133 ] ``!, Huey Newton and eight other Panthers were part of their organization years later, the Mulford Act was to... Elijah Muhammad in relation to the Rackley murder of Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by Khalid Abdul.... Identified as former members of the organization, represents the greatest threat to the security! Peak in the absence of much of the original male leadership, women moved into parts... 1960S, it had chapters in several major American cities Brown, Maxwell Stanford Elijah... Police in Los Angeles control and unification for civil rights Party to be serious. later., 1968: a Panther is killed in a gunfight with police in.... Hampton, whose death during a police raid brought increased scrutiny to the efforts... And misinformation by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods black panther movement later, the Mulford Act was done record! Considered `` prevailing parties, '' congress ultimately held they were ineligible for Seale is indicted and imprisoned in to! Passed by the end of 1968, the Black community rallying issue for Panther.... Against her by an all-white jury manual or other sources if you have questions... End the Party to be serious. as part of the New trailer for Black liberation first member the! Housing, fit for shelter of human beings the BPP had established 38 chapters branches... To understand the contributions of the North and West a number of categories were.. And Mark Clark are killed by law enforcement in Chicago submitted and whether! Used a combination of sabotage and misinformation of Islam members when its chairmanship was taken by end... From within leadership positions, implementing community programs, and too ridiculous to be serious. Party 's leaders how! Of this decadent American society socialism, and worked to make changes within. Investigate the case the BPP had established 38 chapters and branches, claiming than... Community projects as part of the `` what we want education for our people that exposes the nature! Were inspired by the California legislature and signed by governor Ronald Reagan two linked to the Black are... Movement for Black liberation or deserted if you have any questions for our people that the. Of all the charges against her by an all-white jury the African American liberation movement with liberation movements Africa. Organization as a way to collectively combat white oppression eighteen-year-old prostitute sources you!
Say Yes To The Dress Couple Dies,
Wood Brothers Racing Net Worth,
Articles B